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Cathode reaction of aluminum air battery7/24/2023 ![]() And among different types of metal–air batteries, Li–air batteries possess the highest theoretical energy density (11140 Wh kg −1). (Table 1 presents the voltage, theoretical specific capacity and energy density of typical metal–air batteries.) In general, metal–air batteries are composed of a metal anode, an air cathode and an appropriate electrolyte and possess high theoretical energy due to an open configuration in which oxygen can be directly absorbed from surrounding air. And of these different types of metal–air batteries, Li, Na, K, Zn, Mg, Fe, Si and Al air batteries have all been studied with each metal possessing advantages and drawbacks for use as anode electrodes. Here, metal–air batteries have been intensively investigated over the last decade because of their high energy density and capacity as well as their relatively low costs in which the theoretical energy density of metal–air batteries can be 2- to 40-fold greater than that of LIBs. And although tremendous efforts have been undertaken to improve LIBs to provide greater energy capacity, alternative strategies have also been proposed involving the creation of novel rechargeable batteries with sufficient theoretical energy densities for future applications. Moreover, the energy density of LIB cathodes ranges from ~ 140 to 350 mAh g −1 for oxide cathodes and 370 to over 2000 mAh g −1 for anodes depending on the material (i.e., graphite and silicon), leading to LIB cell capacities ranging from ~ 100 to 250 Wh kg −1, which are insufficient to meet the high energy and power density demands of modern EVs. ![]() In addition, the widespread adoption of LIBs in EVs is hindered by drawbacks such as safety concerns, limited driving ranges, slow charging times and heavy battery packs. However, the cost of LIBs is dependent on the cost of raw materials, including cathode and anode active materials, separators and electrolytes. Currently, the lithium-ion battery (LIB) is considered to be the most advanced and practical technology to be developed from small- to large-scale secondary batteries. Based on this, the development of low-cost batteries with high energy potential is a dominant research topic. In terms of EVs, vital factors to assess market potential are the driving range as well as the vehicle price. One method to combat climate change is to suppress the consumption of petroleum as an energy and material resource through the development of renewable and sustainable energy sources for electric vehicles (EVs) and electrical energy storage systems. Climate change has become an acute environmental problem, and one of the main causes is the tremendous amounts of CO 2 gas emitted due to the explosion of human population and activity.
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